Perforations in Endodontics: Prevention, Diagnosis, and Contemporary Management

– Classification of root perforations by location, size, and timing, and their impact on prognosis
– Clinical and procedural causes of perforations during access, instrumentation, and post-space preparation
– Diagnostic methods for detecting and localizing perforations, including periapical radiography, CBCT, and clinical assessment
– Prognostic factors, including perforation size and location, time to repair, and periodontal involvement
– Properties and clinical indications of repair materials, including MTA, Biodentine, and bioceramic putties
– Step-by-step protocols for immediate and delayed perforation repair
– Management of complications, including internal resorption and periodontal breakdown
– Case-based decision-making for referral versus in-house management.